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<title>Capacity factor</title>

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Capacity factor

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The net capacity factor is the <a href="Unitless" class="mw-redirect" title="Unitless">unitless</a> ratio of actual electrical energy output over a given period of time to the theoretical maximum electrical energy output over that period.<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a> The theoretical maximum energy output of a given installation is defined as that due to its continuous operation at full <a href="Nameplate_capacity" title="Nameplate capacity">nameplate capacity</a> over the relevant period. The capacity factor can be calculated for any electricity producing installation, such as a <a href="Fuel" title="Fuel">fuel</a>-consuming <a href="Power_plant" class="mw-redirect" title="Power plant">power plant</a> or one using <a href="Renewable_energy" title="Renewable energy">renewable energy</a>, such as wind, the sun or hydro-electric installations. The average capacity factor can also be defined for any class of such installations and can be used to compare different types of electricity production.

The actual energy output during that period and the capacity factor vary greatly depending on a range of factors. The capacity factor can never exceed the <a href="Availability_factor" title="Availability factor">availability factor</a>, or <a href="Uptime" title="Uptime">uptime</a> during the period. Uptime can be reduced due to, for example, reliability issues and maintenance, scheduled or unscheduled. Other factors include the design of the installation, its location, the type of electricity production and with it either the fuel being used or, for renewable energy, the local weather conditions. Additionally, the capacity factor can be subject to regulatory constraints and <a href="Market_forces" class="mw-redirect" title="Market forces">market forces</a>, potentially affecting both its fuel purchase and its electricity sale.

The capacity factor is often computed over a timescale of a year, <a href="Method_of_averaging" title="Method of averaging">averaging out</a> most temporal fluctuations. However, it can also be computed for a month to gain insight into seasonal fluctuations. Alternatively, it can be computed over the lifetime of the power source, both while operational and after decommissioning. A capacity factor can also be expressed and converted to <a href="Full_load_hour" title="Full load hour">full load hours</a>.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Formula">Formula</h2></div>

<caption>Calculator

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<td>Electricity</td>

<td>0.5 MWh

</td></tr>

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<td>Capacity</td>

<td>1 MW

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<td>Time period</td>

<td>1

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<td>Capacity factor</td>

<td>0.5

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathrm {CF} ={\frac {E_{t}}{P_{n}\times t}}}</annotation>

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</math><img src="./ed0331fed742c6ec9e3cdf30e18bca195da89d79.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.338ex; width:13.521ex; height:5.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathrm {CF} ={\frac {E_{t}}{P_{n}\times t}}}" loading="lazy">

where:

<msub>

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle E_{t}}</annotation>

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</math><img src="./8e1f5f5ca535e7c0078278861ca5358b1ce80ba3.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.541ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle E_{t}}" loading="lazy"> is the total <a href="Electrical_energy" title="Electrical energy">electrical energy</a> over the time period <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle t}">

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle t}</annotation>

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</math><img src="./65658b7b223af9e1acc877d848888ecdb4466560.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:0.84ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle t}" loading="lazy">, e.g., in <a href="Kilowatt-hour" title="Kilowatt-hour">kilowatt-hours</a> (kWh) or <a href="Megajoule" class="mw-redirect" title="Megajoule">megajoules</a> (MJ),</li>

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle P_{n}}</annotation>

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</math><img src="./5949c8b1de44005a1af3a11188361f2a830842d1.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.711ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle P_{n}}" loading="lazy"> is the <a href="Nameplate_capacity" title="Nameplate capacity">nameplate capacity</a> (rated or installed power) of the device or system, e.g., in kilowatts (kW),</li>

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle t}</annotation>

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</math><img src="./65658b7b223af9e1acc877d848888ecdb4466560.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:0.84ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle t}" loading="lazy"> is the total time period considered, e.g., in hours or years.</li></ul>

If consistent units are used for energy and power—such as megawatt-hours (MWh) for energy and megawatts (MW) for power—and time is expressed in hours, the units "cancel out". For example, if a 1 MW plant produces 0.5 MWh in one hour, its capacity factor is:

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathrm {CF} ={\frac {0.5\,\mathrm {MWh} }{1\,\mathrm {MW} \times 1\,\mathrm {h} }}=0.5=50\%}</annotation>

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</math><img src="./b060aaa9a040fe6e02c23f955b23e612a17847fb.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.005ex; width:32.312ex; height:5.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathrm {CF} ={\frac {0.5\,\mathrm {MWh} }{1\,\mathrm {MW} \times 1\,\mathrm {h} }}=0.5=50\%}" loading="lazy">

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sample_calculations">Sample calculations</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nuclear_power_plant">Nuclear power plant</h3></div>

Nuclear power plants are at the high end of the range of capacity factors, ideally reduced only by the <a href="Availability_factor" title="Availability factor">availability factor</a>, i.e. maintenance and refueling. The largest nuclear plant in the US, <a href="Palo_Verde_Nuclear_Generating_Station" title="Palo Verde Nuclear Generating Station">Palo Verde Nuclear Generating Station</a>, has between its three reactors a nameplate capacity of 3942 MW. In 2010 its annual generation was 31200000 MWh,<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> leading to a capacity factor of

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<mtext>hours/day</mtext>

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\frac {31\,200\,000\ {\text{MW}}{\cdot }{\text{h}}}{(365\ {\text{days}})\times (24\ {\text{hours/day}})\times (3942\ {\text{MW}})}}=0.904=90.4\%.}</annotation>

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Each of Palo Verde’s three reactors is refueled every 18 months, with one refueling every spring and fall. In 2014, a refueling was completed in a record 28 days,<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> compared to the 35 days of downtime that the 2010 capacity factor corresponds to.

In 2019, <a href="Prairie_Island_Nuclear_Power_Plant" title="Prairie Island Nuclear Power Plant">Prairie Island 1</a> was the US unit with the highest factor and actually reached 104.4%.<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a>

The Danish offshore wind farm <a href="Horns_Rev_2" class="mw-redirect" title="Horns Rev 2">Horns Rev 2</a> has a nameplate capacity of 209.3 MW.

As of January 2017 it has produced 6416 GWh since its commissioning 7 years ago, i.e. an average annual production of 875 GWh/year and a capacity factor of<a href="#cite_note-HR2el-5">[5]</a>

<mfrac>

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<mtext>hours/day</mtext>

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\frac {875\,000\ {\text{MW}}{\cdot }{\text{h}}}{(365\ {\text{days}})\times (24\ {\text{hours/day}})\times (209.3\ {\text{MW}})}}=0.477=47.7\%.}</annotation>

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Sites with lower capacity factors may be deemed feasible for wind farms, for example, the onshore 1 GW <a href="Fosen_Vind" title="Fosen Vind">Fosen Vind</a>, which as of 2017 is under construction in Norway, has a projected capacity factor of 39%. Feasibility calculations may be affected by seasonality. For example, in Finland, capacity factor during the cold winter months is more than double compared to July.<a href="#cite_note-wind_fi_capa-6">[6]</a> While the annual average in Finland is 29.5%,<a href="#cite_note-wind_fi_capa-6">[6]</a> the high demand for heating energy correlates with the higher capacity factor during the winter.

Certain onshore wind farms can reach capacity factors of over 60%, for example, the 44 MW Eolo plant in Nicaragua had a net generation of 232.132 GWh in 2015, equivalent to a capacity factor of 60.2%,<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> while United States annual capacity factors from 2013 through 2016 range from 32.2% to 34.7%.<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a>

Since the capacity factor of a wind turbine measures actual production relative to possible production, it is unrelated to <a href="Betz's_law" title="Betz's law">Betz's coefficient</a> of 16/27 ≈ 59.3%, which limits production vs. energy available in the wind.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hydroelectric_dam">Hydroelectric dam</h3></div>

As of 2017 <a href="Three_Gorges_Dam" title="Three Gorges Dam">Three Gorges Dam</a> in China is, with its nameplate capacity of 22,500 MW, the largest power generating station in the world by installed capacity.

In 2015 it generated 87 TWh, for a capacity factor of

<mfrac>

<mrow>

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<mtext>hours/day</mtext>

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\frac {87\,000\,000\ {\text{MW}}{\cdot }{\text{h}}}{(365\ {\text{days}})\times (24\ {\text{hours/day}})\times (22\,500\ {\text{MW}})}}=0.45=45\%.}</annotation>

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<a href="Hoover_Dam" title="Hoover Dam">Hoover Dam</a> has a nameplate capacity of 2080 MW<a href="#cite_note-hoover_dam_faq-9">[9]</a> and an annual generation averaging 4.2 TW·h.<a href="#cite_note-hoover_dam_faq-9">[9]</a> (The annual generation has varied between a high of 10.348 TW·h in 1984, and a low of 2.648 TW·h in 1956.<a href="#cite_note-hoover_dam_faq-9">[9]</a>)

Taking the average figure for annual generation gives a capacity factor of

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<mtext>hours/day</mtext>

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\frac {4\,200\,000\ {\text{MW}}{\cdot }{\text{h}}}{(365\ {\mbox{days}})\times (24\ {\mbox{hours/day}})\times (2080\ {\mbox{MW}})}}=0.23=23\%.}</annotation>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Photovoltaic_power_station">Photovoltaic power station</h3></div>

At the low range of capacity factors is the <a href="Photovoltaic_power_station" title="Photovoltaic power station">photovoltaic power station</a>, which supplies power to the electricity grid from a large-scale <a href="Photovoltaic_system" title="Photovoltaic system">photovoltaic system</a> (PV system).

An inherent limit to its capacity factor comes from its requirement of <a href="Daylight" title="Daylight">daylight</a>, preferably with a sun unobstructed by clouds, smoke or <a href="Smog" title="Smog">smog</a>, shade from trees and building structures.

Since the amount of sunlight varies both with the time of the day and the seasons of the year, the capacity factor is typically computed on an annual basis.

The amount of available sunlight is mostly determined by the <a href="Latitude" title="Latitude">latitude</a> of the installation and the local cloud cover.

The actual production is also influenced by local factors such as dust and ambient temperature, which ideally should be low. As for any power station, the maximum possible power production is the nameplate capacity times the number of hours in a year, while the actual production is the amount of electricity delivered annually to the grid.

For example, <a href="Agua_Caliente_Solar_Project" title="Agua Caliente Solar Project">Agua Caliente Solar Project</a>, located in <a href="Arizona" title="Arizona">Arizona</a> near the 33rd <a href="Circle_of_latitude" title="Circle of latitude">parallel</a> and awarded for its excellence in renewable energy has a nameplate capacity of 290 MW and an actual average annual production of 740 GWh/year.

Its capacity factor is thus

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<mtext>hours/day</mtext>

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\frac {740\,000\ {\text{MW}}{\cdot }{\text{h}}}{(365\ {\text{days}})\times (24\ {\text{hours/day}})\times (290\ {\text{MW}})}}=0.291=29.1\%.}</annotation>

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</math>

A significantly lower capacity factor is achieved by <a href="Lauingen_Energy_Park" title="Lauingen Energy Park">Lauingen Energy Park</a> located in <a href="Bavaria" title="Bavaria">Bavaria</a>, near the 49th parallel. With a nameplate capacity of 25.7 MW and an actual average annual production of 26.98 GWh/year it has a capacity factor of 12.0%.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Determinants_of_a_plant_capacity_factor">Determinants of a plant capacity factor</h2></div>

There are several reasons why a plant would have a capacity factor lower than 100%. These include technical constraints, such as <a href="Operational_availability" title="Operational availability">operational availability</a> <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\textstyle A_{o}}">

<msub>

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\textstyle A_{o}}</annotation>

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</math><img src="./41627a0fe3a06811b0bd2ea08b19ab934c97c024.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.773ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\textstyle A_{o}}" loading="lazy"> of the plant (known as <a href="Availability_factor" title="Availability factor">availability factor</a> for electricity generators), economic reasons, and availability of an energy resource.

A plant can be out of service or operating at reduced output for part of the time due to equipment failures or routine maintenance.

This accounts for most of the unused capacity of <a href="Base_load_power_plant" class="mw-redirect" title="Base load power plant">base load power plants</a>. Base load plants usually have low costs per unit of electricity because they are designed for maximum efficiency and are operated continuously at high output.

<a href="Geothermal_power_plant" class="mw-redirect" title="Geothermal power plant">Geothermal power plants</a>, <a href="Nuclear_power_plant" title="Nuclear power plant">nuclear power plants</a>, <a href="Coal-fired_plant" class="mw-redirect" title="Coal-fired plant">coal-fired plants</a> and <a href="Bioenergy_plants" class="mw-redirect" title="Bioenergy plants">bioenergy plants</a> that burn solid material are almost always operated as base load plants, as they can be difficult to adjust to suit demand.

A plant can also have its output curtailed or intentionally left idle because the electricity is not needed or because the price of electricity is too low to make production economical.

This accounts for most of the unused capacity of <a href="Peaking_power_plant" title="Peaking power plant">peaking power plants</a> and <a href="Load_following_power_plant" class="mw-redirect" title="Load following power plant">load following power plants</a>.

Peaking plants may operate for only a few hours per year or up to several hours per day.

Many other power plants operate only at certain times of the day or year because of variation in loads and electricity prices.

If a plant is only needed during the day, for example, even if it operates at full power output from 8 am to 8 pm every day (12 hours) all year long, it would only have a 50% capacity factor.

Due to low capacity factors, electricity from peaking power plants is relatively expensive because the limited generation has to cover the plant fixed costs.

A third reason is that a plant may not have the fuel available to operate all of the time.

This can apply to fossil generating stations with restricted fuels supplies, but most notably applies to intermittent renewable resources.<a href="#cite_note-ieaCF2015-10">[10]</a>

Solar PV and wind turbines have a capacity factor limited by the availability of their "fuel", sunshine and wind respectively.

A hydroelectricity plant may have a capacity factor lower than 100% due to restriction or scarcity of water, or its output may be regulated to match the current power need, conserving its stored water for later usage.

Governments differ in their wiliness to accept risks of <a href="List_of_major_power_outages" title="List of major power outages">power outages</a> and lack of <a href="Resilience_(engineering_and_construction)" title="Resilience (engineering and construction)">resilience</a> against natural disasters and military attack on electricity grids. Examples of historical events impacting grid resilience are the <a href="Gulf_War_air_campaign#Civilian_infrastructure" title="Gulf War air campaign">1991 Gulf War air campaign against civilian infrastructure</a>, <a href="2015_Ukraine_power_grid_hack" title="2015 Ukraine power grid hack">2015 Ukraine power grid hack</a>, <a href="2021_Texas_power_crisis" title="2021 Texas power crisis">2021 Texas power crisis</a> and <a href="Russian_strikes_against_Ukrainian_infrastructure_(2022%E2%80%93present)" title="Russian strikes against Ukrainian infrastructure (2022–present)">Russian strikes against Ukrainian infrastructure (2022–present)</a>. Low risk tolerance may require electricity grids to be more significantly overbuilt to mitigate the potential costs of electricity grid interruptions and outages, impacting on a technology-by-technology basis the amount of generation curtailment necessary under normal grid conditions.

Other reasons that a power plant may not have a capacity factor of 100% include restrictions or limitations on air permits and limitations on transmission that force the plant to curtail output.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Capacity_factor_of_renewable_energy">Capacity factor of renewable energy</h2></div>

For <a href="Renewable_energy" title="Renewable energy">renewable energy</a> sources such as <a href="Solar_power" title="Solar power">solar power</a>, <a href="Wind_power" title="Wind power">wind power</a> and <a href="Hydroelectricity" title="Hydroelectricity">hydroelectricity</a>, the main reason for reduced capacity factor is generally the availability of the energy source.

The plant may be capable of producing electricity, but its "fuel" (<a href="Wind" title="Wind">wind</a>, <a href="Sunlight" title="Sunlight">sunlight</a> or <a href="Water" title="Water">water</a>) may not be available.

A hydroelectric plant's production may also be affected by requirements to keep the water level from getting too high or low and to provide water for <a href="Fish" title="Fish">fish</a> downstream.

However, solar, wind and hydroelectric plants do have high <a href="Availability_factor" title="Availability factor">availability factors</a>, so when they have fuel available, they are almost always able to produce electricity.<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a>

When hydroelectric plants have water available, they are also useful for load following, because of their high dispatchability. A typical hydroelectric plant's operators can bring it from a stopped condition to full power in just a few minutes.

<a href="Wind_farm" title="Wind farm">Wind farms</a> are variable, due to the natural variability of the wind.

For a wind farm, the capacity factor is determined by the availability of wind, the swept area of the turbine and the size of the <a href="Electric_generator" title="Electric generator">generator</a>.

Transmission line capacity and electricity demand also affect the capacity factor.

Typical capacity factors of current wind farms are between 25 and 45%.<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> In the United Kingdom during the five year period from 2011 to 2019 the annual capacity factor for wind was over 30%.<a href="#cite_note-decc.gov.uk-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-www.gov.uk-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-www.gov.uk1-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-www.gov.uk2-16">[16]</a>

<a href="Solar_energy" title="Solar energy">Solar energy</a> is variable because of the daily rotation of the earth, seasonal changes, and because of cloud cover.

For example, the Sacramento Municipal Utility District observed a 15% capacity factor in 2005.<a href="#cite_note-Blees2008-17">[17]</a>

However, according to the SolarPACES programme of the <a href="International_Energy_Agency" title="International Energy Agency">International Energy Agency</a> (IEA), solar power plants designed for solar-only generation are well matched to summer noon peak loads in areas with significant cooling demands, such as <a href="Solar_power_in_Spain" title="Solar power in Spain">Spain</a> or the <a href="Solar_power_plants_in_the_Mojave_Desert" title="Solar power plants in the Mojave Desert">south-western United States</a>,<a href="#cite_note-mangey-18">[18]</a> although in some locations solar PV does not reduce the need for generation of network upgrades given that air conditioner peak demand often occurs in the late afternoon or early evening when solar output is reduced.<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a>

SolarPACES states that by using thermal energy storage systems the operating periods of <a href="Solar_thermal_power" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar thermal power">solar thermal power</a> (CSP) stations can be extended to become dispatchable (load following).<a href="#cite_note-mangey-18">[18]</a>

<a href="Geothermal_power" title="Geothermal power">Geothermal</a> has a higher capacity factor than many other power sources, and geothermal resources are generally available all the time.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Capacity_factors_by_energy_source">Capacity factors by energy source</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Worldwide">Worldwide</h3></div>

<ul><li>Nuclear power 88.7% (2006–2012 average of US's plants).<a href="#cite_note-ModernNucCapacity-21">[21]</a></li>

<li>Hydroelectricity, worldwide average 44%,<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> range of 10–99% depending on water availability (with or without regulation via storage dam).</li>

<li>Wind farms 21–52% (as of 2022).<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a></li>

<li>CSP solar with storage and Natural Gas backup in Spain 63%,<a href="#cite_note-CSPStorageCapacity-24">[24]</a> California 33%.<a href="#cite_note-CSPCapacity-25">[25]</a></li>

<li>Photovoltaic solar in Germany 10%, Arizona 19%,<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-THSolarVsWind-27">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-Arni-28">[28]</a> Massachusetts 13.35% (8 year average as of July 2018).<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_States">United States</h3></div>

According to the US Energy Information Administration (EIA), from 2013 to 2017 the capacity factors of utility-scale generators were as follows:<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a>

<th style="white-space:nowrap;">Year

</th></tr>

<tr>

</th></tr>

<tr>

<th style="white-space:nowrap;">2013

</th></tr>

<tr>

<th style="white-space:nowrap;">2014

</th></tr>

<tr>

<th style="white-space:nowrap;">2015

</th></tr>

<tr>

<th style="white-space:nowrap;">2016

</th></tr>

<tr>

<th style="white-space:nowrap;">2017

</th></tr>

<tr>

<th style="white-space:nowrap;">2018

</th></tr></tbody></table>

<th colspan="8">Non-<a href="Fossil_fuels" class="mw-redirect" title="Fossil fuels">fossil fuels</a></th>

<th colspan="4">Natural gas</th>

<th colspan="3">Petroleum liquids

</th></tr>

<tr>

<th>Nuclear</th>

<th><abbr title="Conventional">Conv.</abbr> Hydro</th>

<th>Solar PV</th>

<th>Solar <a href="Concentrated_solar_power" title="Concentrated solar power">CSP</a></th>

<th>Landfill gas and <abbr title="municipal solid saste">MSW</abbr></th>

<th>Other biomass, including wood</th>

<th>Geothermal</th>

</th></tr>

<tr>

<td>2.2%

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>1.4%

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>2.2%

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>2.6%

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>2.3%

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>NA

</td></tr></tbody></table></div><div style="clear:both"></div>

However, these values often vary significantly by month.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_Kingdom">United Kingdom</h3></div>

The following figures were collected by the <a href="Department_of_Energy_and_Climate_Change" title="Department of Energy and Climate Change">Department of Energy and Climate Change</a> on the capacity factors for various types of plants in UK grid:<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-decc.gov.uk-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a><a href="#cite_note-www.gov.uk-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-www.gov.uk1-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-www.gov.uk2-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a><a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a>

<th>Generator type

</th>

<th>2021

</th></tr>

<tr>

<td><a href="Nuclear_power_stations" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear power stations">Nuclear power stations</a>

</td>

<td>58.5%

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td><a href="Combined_cycle_gas_turbine" class="mw-redirect" title="Combined cycle gas turbine">Combined cycle gas turbine stations</a>

</td>

<td>38.9%

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td><a href="Fossil-fuel_power_station" class="mw-redirect" title="Fossil-fuel power station">Coal-fired power stations</a>

</td>

<td>12.7%

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td><a href="Hydroelectricity" title="Hydroelectricity">Hydroelectric power stations</a>

</td>

<td>33.1%

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td><a href="Wind_power" title="Wind power">Wind power</a>

</td>

<td>29.3%

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td style="padding-left: 2em;"><a href="Offshore_wind_power" title="Offshore wind power">Offshore wind power</a>

</td>

<td>37.4%

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td><a href="Photovoltaic_power_station" title="Photovoltaic power station">Photovoltaic power stations</a>

</td>

<td>10.0%

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>Marine (<a href="Wave_power" title="Wave power">wave</a> and <a href="Tidal_power" title="Tidal power">tidal power</a> stations)

</td>

<td>2.8%

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td><a href="Bioenergy" title="Bioenergy">Bioenergy power stations</a>

</td>

<td>56.6%

</td></tr></tbody></table>

<ul><li><a href="Demand_factor" title="Demand factor">Demand factor</a></li>

<li><a href="Intermittent_power_source" class="mw-redirect" title="Intermittent power source">Intermittent power source</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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</ol></div></div>

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</style><div id="Electricity_delivery729" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Electricity_delivery" title="Electricity delivery">Electricity delivery</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Automatic_generation_control" title="Automatic generation control">Automatic generation control</a></li>

<li><a href="Backfeeding" title="Backfeeding">Backfeeding</a></li>

<li><a href="Demand_factor" title="Demand factor">Demand factor</a></li>

<li><a href="Droop_speed_control" title="Droop speed control">Droop speed control</a></li>

<li><a href="Electric_power" title="Electric power">Electric power</a></li>

<li><a href="Electric_power_quality" title="Electric power quality">Electric power quality</a></li>

<li><a href="Electrical_fault" title="Electrical fault">Electrical fault</a></li>

<li><a href="Energy_demand_management" title="Energy demand management">Energy demand management</a></li>

<li><a href="Energy_return_on_investment" title="Energy return on investment">Energy return on investment</a></li>

<li><a href="Grid_energy_storage" title="Grid energy storage">Grid energy storage</a></li>

<li><a href="Grid_strength" class="mw-redirect" title="Grid strength">Grid strength</a></li>

<li><a href="Home_energy_storage" title="Home energy storage">Home energy storage</a></li>

<li><a href="Load-following_power_plant" title="Load-following power plant">Load-following</a></li>

<li><a href="Merit_order" title="Merit order">Merit order</a></li>

<li><a href="Nameplate_capacity" title="Nameplate capacity">Nameplate capacity</a></li>

<li><a href="Peak_demand" title="Peak demand">Peak demand</a></li>

<li><a href="Power_factor" title="Power factor">Power factor</a></li>

<li><a href="Power-flow_study" title="Power-flow study">Power-flow study</a></li>

<li><a href="Power_system_reliability" title="Power system reliability">Power system reliability</a></li>

<li><a href="Repowering" title="Repowering">Repowering</a></li>

<li><a href="Utility_frequency" title="Utility frequency">Utility frequency</a></li>

<li><a href="Variable_renewable_energy" title="Variable renewable energy">Variability</a></li>

<li><a href="Vehicle-to-grid" title="Vehicle-to-grid">Vehicle-to-grid</a></li></ul>

</div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="8" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sources</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em"><a href="Non-renewable_resource" title="Non-renewable resource">Non-renewable</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Fossil_fuel_power_station" title="Fossil fuel power station">Fossil fuel power station</a>

<li><a href="Natural_gas" title="Natural gas">Natural gas</a></li>

<li><a href="Oil_shale" title="Oil shale">Oil shale</a></li>

<li><a href="Petroleum" title="Petroleum">Petroleum</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Nuclear_power" title="Nuclear power">Nuclear</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em"><a href="Renewable_energy" title="Renewable energy">Renewable</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Biofuel" title="Biofuel">Biofuel</a></li>

<li><a href="Biogas" title="Biogas">Biogas</a></li>

<li><a href="Biomass" title="Biomass">Biomass</a></li>

<li><a href="Geothermal_power" title="Geothermal power">Geothermal</a></li>

<li><a href="Hydroelectricity" title="Hydroelectricity">Hydro</a></li>

<li><a href="Marine_energy" title="Marine energy">Marine</a>

<ul><li><a href="Marine_current_power" title="Marine current power">Current</a></li>

<li><a href="Osmotic_power" title="Osmotic power">Osmotic</a></li>

<li><a href="Ocean_thermal_energy_conversion" title="Ocean thermal energy conversion">Thermal</a></li>

<li><a href="Tidal_power" title="Tidal power">Tidal</a></li>

<li><a href="Solar_power" title="Solar power">Solar</a></li>

<li><a href="Sustainable_biofuel" title="Sustainable biofuel">Sustainable biofuel</a></li>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Generation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="AC_power" title="AC power">AC power</a></li>

<li><a href="Cogeneration" title="Cogeneration">Cogeneration</a></li>

<li><a href="Combined_cycle_power_plant" title="Combined cycle power plant">Combined cycle</a></li>

<li><a href="Cooling_tower" title="Cooling tower">Cooling tower</a></li>

<li><a href="Dispatchable_generation" title="Dispatchable generation">Dispatchable</a></li>

<li><a href="Energy_storage" title="Energy storage">Energy storage</a>

<ul><li><a href="Battery_energy_storage_system" title="Battery energy storage system">Battery</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Induction_generator" title="Induction generator">Induction generator</a></li>

<li><a href="Inertial_response" title="Inertial response">Inertial response</a></li>

<li><a href="Inverter-based_resource" title="Inverter-based resource">Inverter-based resource</a></li>

<li><a href="Micro_combined_heat_and_power" title="Micro combined heat and power">Micro CHP</a></li>

<li><a href="Microgeneration" title="Microgeneration">Microgeneration</a></li>

<li><a href="Rankine_cycle" title="Rankine cycle">Rankine cycle</a></li>

<li><a href="Three-phase_electric_power" title="Three-phase electric power">Three-phase electric power</a></li>

<li><a href="Virtual_power_plant" title="Virtual power plant">Virtual power plant</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="Electric_power_transmission" title="Electric power transmission">Transmission</a> and <a href="Electric_power_distribution" title="Electric power distribution">distribution</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Ancillary_services" title="Ancillary services">Ancillary services</a></li>

<li><a href="Balancing_authority" title="Balancing authority">Balancing authority</a></li>

<li><a href="Contingency_(electrical_grid)" title="Contingency (electrical grid)">Contingency (electrical grid)</a></li>

<li><a href="Demand_response" title="Demand response">Demand response</a></li>

<li><a href="Distributed_generation" title="Distributed generation">Distributed generation</a></li>

<li><a href="Dynamic_demand_(electric_power)" title="Dynamic demand (electric power)">Dynamic demand</a></li>

<li><a href="Electric_power_distribution" title="Electric power distribution">Electric power distribution</a></li>

<li><a href="Electric_power_system" title="Electric power system">Electric power system</a></li>

<li><a href="Electric_power_transmission" title="Electric power transmission">Electric power transmission</a></li>

<li><a href="Electrical_busbar_system" title="Electrical busbar system">Electrical busbar system</a></li>

<li><a href="Electrical_grid" title="Electrical grid">Electrical grid</a></li>

<li><a href="Electricity_retailing" title="Electricity retailing">Electricity retailing</a></li>

<li><a href="Grid_balancing" title="Grid balancing">Grid balancing</a></li>

<li><a href="High-voltage_direct_current" title="High-voltage direct current">High-voltage direct current</a></li>

<li><a href="High-voltage_shore_connection" title="High-voltage shore connection">High-voltage shore connection</a></li>

<li><a href="Interconnector" title="Interconnector">Interconnector</a></li>

<li><a href="Load_management" title="Load management">Load management</a></li>

<li><a href="Mains_electricity_by_country" title="Mains electricity by country">Mains electricity by country</a></li>

<li><a href="Overhead_power_line" title="Overhead power line">Overhead power line</a>

<ul><li><a href="Conductor_gallop" title="Conductor gallop">Conductor gallop</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Power_station" title="Power station">Power station</a></li>

<li><a href="Pumped-storage_hydroelectricity" title="Pumped-storage hydroelectricity">Pumped hydro</a></li>

<li><a href="Single-wire_earth_return" title="Single-wire earth return">Single-wire earth return</a></li>

<li><a href="Smart_grid" title="Smart grid">Smart grid</a></li>

<li><a href="Substation" title="Substation">Substation</a></li>

<li><a href="Super_grid" title="Super grid">Super grid</a></li>

<li><a href="Transformer" title="Transformer">Transformer</a></li>

<li><a href="Transmission_system_operator" title="Transmission system operator">Transmission system operator</a> (TSO)</li>

<li><a href="Transmission_tower" title="Transmission tower">Transmission tower</a></li>

<li><a href="Utility_pole" title="Utility pole">Utility pole</a></li>

<li><a href="Voltage_control_and_reactive_power_management" title="Voltage control and reactive power management">Voltage control and reactive power management</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Failure modes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Black_start" title="Black start">Black start</a></li>

<li><a href="Brownout_(electricity)" title="Brownout (electricity)">Brownout</a></li>

<li><a href="Cascading_failure" title="Cascading failure">Cascading failure</a></li>

<li><a href="Islanding" title="Islanding">Islanding</a></li>

<li><a href="Power_outage" title="Power outage">Power outage</a>

<li><a href="Rolling_blackout" title="Rolling blackout">Rolling blackout</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Protective devices</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Arc-fault_circuit_interrupter" title="Arc-fault circuit interrupter">Arc-fault circuit interrupter</a></li>

<li><a href="Circuit_breaker" title="Circuit breaker">Circuit breaker</a>

<ul><li><a href="Earth-leakage_circuit_breaker" title="Earth-leakage circuit breaker">Earth-leakage</a></li>

<li><a href="Sulfur_hexafluoride_circuit_breaker" title="Sulfur hexafluoride circuit breaker">Sulfur hexafluoride</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Generator_interlock_kit" title="Generator interlock kit">Generator interlock kit</a></li>

<li><a href="Numerical_relay" title="Numerical relay">Numerical relay</a></li>

<li><a href="Power_system_protection" title="Power system protection">Power system protection</a></li>

<li><a href="Protective_relay" title="Protective relay">Protective relay</a></li>

<li><a href="Residual-current_device" title="Residual-current device">Residual-current device</a> (GFI)</li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Economics and policies</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Availability_factor" title="Availability factor">Availability factor</a></li>

<li><a href="Carbon_offsets_and_credits" title="Carbon offsets and credits">Carbon offsets and credits</a></li>

<li><a href="Cost_of_electricity_by_source" title="Cost of electricity by source">Cost of electricity by source</a></li>

<li><a href="Energy_subsidy" title="Energy subsidy">Energy subsidies</a></li>

<li><a href="Environmental_tax" title="Environmental tax">Environmental tax</a></li>

<li><a href="Feed-in_tariff" title="Feed-in tariff">Feed-in tariff</a></li>

<li><a href="Fossil_fuel_phase-out" title="Fossil fuel phase-out">Fossil fuel phase-out</a></li>

<li><a href="Load_factor_(electrical)" title="Load factor (electrical)">Load factor</a></li>

<li><a href="Net_metering" title="Net metering">Net metering</a></li>

<li><a href="Pigouvian_tax" title="Pigouvian tax">Pigouvian tax</a></li>

<li><a href="Renewable_Energy_Certificate_(United_States)" title="Renewable Energy Certificate (United States)">Renewable Energy Certificates</a></li>

<li><a href="Renewable_energy_commercialization" title="Renewable energy commercialization">Renewable energy commercialization</a></li>

<li><a href="Renewable_Energy_Payments" title="Renewable Energy Payments">Renewable Energy Payments</a></li>

<li><a href="Spark_spread" title="Spark spread">Spark/Dark/Quark/Bark spread</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Statistics and production</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Electric_energy_consumption" title="Electric energy consumption">Electric energy consumption</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_electricity_sectors" title="List of electricity sectors">List of electricity sectors</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div>

<ul><li> Category</li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox391" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Authority control databases: National </th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4410940-4">Germany</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div><div><div class="zim-footer">

This article is issued from <a class="external text" title="Last edited on 2025-08-06" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/?title=Capacity_factor&oldid=1304486290">Wikipedia</a>. The text is available under <a class="external text" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en">Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0</a> unless otherwise noted. Additional terms may apply for the media files.

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